Health care payers

Government-funded health insurance

Mnemonic

  • MedicarE is for Elderly.
  • MedicaiD is for Disadvantaged.

Medicare

Medicare is funded by the federal government.

  • Eligibility
    • Individuals ≥ 65 years old who:
      • Are US citizens or lawful permanent residents
      • And have worked and paid Medicare taxes for a minimum of 10 years
    • Irrespective of age, individuals with any of the following may be eligible:

Mnemonic

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  • Part A: hospital Admissions, including hospice, skilled nursing
  • Part B: Basic medical bills (eg, physician fees, diagnostic testing)
  • Part C: (parts A + B = Combo) delivered by approved private companies
  • Part D: prescription Drugs

Medicaid

Medicaid is jointly funded by federal and state governments.

  • Eligibility: Individuals must meet both nonfinancial and financial criteria.
    • Nonfinancial
      • US citizen or lawful permanent resident
      • Residence in the state in which coverage is received
    • Financial: Factors that impact financial eligibility include household income, presence of children in the home, pregnancy, disability, age, and state of residence.
      • Children and pregnant individuals living in households with income ≤ 133% of the federal poverty level (FPL) are eligible in every state.
      • Eligibility for adults < 65 years of age with a household income ≤ 133% of the FPL is decided by each state.

Commercial health insurance

Plan TypeProviders EligibleNotes
Health Maintenance Organization (HMO)Restricted to a limited panel of physicians- Requires referrals from PCP
- Strict in-network coverage
Preferred Provider Organization (PPO)Out-of-network providers allowed, but cost more.- Tends to be more expensive
- No referrals necessary (OON)
Exclusive Provider Organization (EPO)Restricted to a limited panel of physicians- Similar to HMOs, but network tends to be smaller
Point of Service (POS)Out-of-network providers allowed, but designated “in network” to reduce costs.- Requires referrals from PCP (OON)
- Can be thought of as HMO + PPO

Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA)

Designed to cover gaps in health insurance coverage while individuals are between jobs (e.g., job loss, changing jobs, reduction in hours) by extending medical coverage that was provided through the previous employer’s health planPasted image 20250312164653.png

Health insurance basics


Out-of-pocket expenses

  • Definition: health care costs that are paid by an individual rather than by an insurance company, e.g., deductibles, coinsurance, and copayments
  • Out-of-pocket maximum
    • A limit on the amount of money that an individual has to pay for covered health care services in a year (not including premiums).
    • After this amount is reached, all covered health services are paid in full by the health plan for the rest of that plan year.
    • Deductibles, copayments, and coinsurance apply to the out-of-pocket maximum.

Copayment

  • A fixed fee that must be paid to receive covered care
  • Example: $40 every time you see a specialist

Coinsurance

  • A fixed percentage that must be paid by the insured
  • Example: if your coinsurance is 25%, and a doctor bills insurance 25

Deductible

  • A fixed amount that must be paid out of pocket BEFORE insurance pays for your care
  • Example: if your deductible is 265, you are responsible for paying the entirety of the 265 out of $4,000 toward your deductible.

Example Scenario:

Imagine you have a health insurance plan with the following features:

  • Annual deductible: $2,000
  • Coinsurance: 20% after deductible
  • Specialist copay: $50 per visit

Throughout the Year:

January:

  • You visit your primary care physician for a routine check-up, which costs $200
  • Since you haven’t met your deductible yet, you pay the full $200
  • Your remaining deductible: $1,800

March:

  • You see a specialist for a consultation
  • You pay a $50 copay (this is separate from and doesn’t count toward your deductible)
  • The specialist’s services cost $300, which goes toward your deductible
  • You pay the full 50 copay, totaling $350
  • Your remaining deductible: $1,500

July:

  • You need an outpatient procedure costing $2,000
  • You pay the remaining $1,500 to meet your deductible
  • For the remaining $500 of the procedure cost, your coinsurance kicks in
  • You pay 20% of 100
  • Insurance covers the other 80% = $400
  • Total you pay: $1,600

September:

  • You see a specialist again for follow-up
  • You pay only the $50 copay
  • The specialist bills insurance $250
  • Since your deductible is met, coinsurance applies
  • You pay 20% of 50 (coinsurance)
  • Your total payment: 50 copay + $50 coinsurance)

Health care payment models


Payment ModelDescriptionProvider RiskPatient ExperienceExamples/Usage
Fee-for-servicePayment made for each individual service providedLow risk for providers; incentivizes volume of servicesMay lead to unnecessary services; less coordination of careTraditional insurance model; Medicare Part B
Discounted fee-for-servicePayment for each individual service at a discounted rate pre-determined between providers and payersModerate provider risk due to discounted ratesSimilar to fee-for-service but with potentially lower copaysPPOs commonly use this model
Global paymentSingle payment covers all expenses for a specific episode of careHigher risk for providers if complications ariseSimpler billing; transparent total costCommon for elective surgeries including pre- and post-operative care
Bundled paymentSet payment amount for a service to be divided among all involved providers/facilitiesHigh risk for providers if costs exceed the bundle amountPotentially better care coordination across providersJoint replacements, cardiac procedures, maternity care
CapitationFixed payment per patient per time period regardless of services usedHighest risk for providers; may limit unnecessary careMay improve preventive care; potential for undertreatmentCommon in HMOs; Primary care capitation models

Key differences:

  • Risk allocation: Fee-for-service puts risk on payers, while capitation shifts risk to providers
  • Payment timing: Fee models pay after service; capitation pays prospectively
  • Incentives: Fee models may incentivize volume; capitation and bundled payments incentivize efficiency
  • Coordination: Bundled and global payments encourage better provider coordination