• Etiology
  • Head and neck trauma (e.g., child abuse, head trauma)
  • Eye diseases (e.g., age-related macular degeneration, retinal vein occlusion, retinal vasculitis, ocular ischemic syndrome, Coats disease)
  • Eye infections (e.g., CMV retinitis)
  • Chronic disease (e.g., diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy)
  • Preeclampsia, hypertensive emergency
  • Coagulopathy, anemia, leukemia (e.g., hypofibrinogenemia, sickle cell anemia, Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia)
  • Neonatal retinal hemorrhages (e.g., instrumental labor, cesarean delivery)
  • Other: cerebral malaria, sepsis, systemic lupus erythematosus